MSC-EVs mechanisms in IC/BPS therapy. A schematic diagram summarizing MSC-EV separation methods and their potential modes of action in IC/BPS therapy. Parts of this figure were created using Servier Medical Art (https://smart.servier.com), licensed under a Creative Com-mons Attribution 3.0. AKT: serine/threonine kinase, mTOR: mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase, TGF-β: transforming growth factor-β, IL: interleukin, αSMA: α Smooth muscle actin.
